U.S. Flag Retreat in Utah while I was attending the U.S. Army 2006 Annual Museum Training Course. Alaska Air National Guard photo by Robert M. Braley Jr., MSgt, AKANG 176th Wing Histrical Property Custodian 2002-2008
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas, their descendants, and many ethnic groups who identify with those peoples. They are often also referred to as Native Americans, First Nations and by Christopher Columbus' historical mistake "American Indians" or "AmerIndians".[27]
While some indigenous peoples of the Americas were historically hunter-gatherers, many practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping, taming, and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Some societies depended heavily on agriculture while others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and massive empires.[27]
Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65) and the Great Depression of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation state. The economy is marked by steady growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology.
Labor Day, June 28, 1894
In the United States and Canada, holiday (first Monday in September) honouring workers and recognizing their contributions to society. In many other countries May Day serves a similar purpose.
In the United States, Peter J. McGuire, a union leader who had founded the United Brotherhood of Carpenters in 1881, is generally given credit for the idea of Labor Day. In 1882 he suggested to the Central Labor Union of New York that there be a celebration honouring American workers. On September 5 some 10,000 workers, under the sponsorship of the Knights of Labor, held a parade in New York City. There was no particular significance to the date, and McGuire said that it was chosen because it fell roughly halfway between the Fourth of July holiday and Thanksgiving. In 1884 the Knights of Labor adopted a resolution that the first Monday in September be considered Labor Day. The idea quickly spread, and by the following year Labor Day celebrations were being held in a number of states. Oregon became the first state, in 1887, to grant legal status to the holiday (although the state initially celebrated it on the first Saturday in June). That same year Colorado, New York, Massachusetts, and New Jersey established the holiday on the first Monday in September, and other states soon followed. In 1894, in the aftermath of the Pullman strike in Illinois, the U.S. Congress passed a bill making Labor Day a national public holiday. Over the years, particularly as the influence of unions waned, the significance of Labor Day in the United States changed. For many people it became an end-of-summer celebration and a long weekend for family get-togethers. At the same time, it has continued to be celebrated with parades and speeches, as well as political rallies, and the day is sometimes the official kickoff date for national political campaigns.
In Canada the first parades of workers were held in 1872 in Ottawa and Toronto, and later in that year the law making labour unions illegal was repealed. McGuire was invited to speak at the celebration in 1882. In 1894 Parliament officially recognized the holiday in Canada.
Most other countries honour workers on May Day (May 1). The day was a major holiday in communist countries, and it continues to be important where left-wing political parties and labour movements wield influence.
Ref: Encyclopædia Britannica Online article #9002416
Independence Day
also called Fourth of July in the United States, the annual celebration of nationhood. It commemorates the passage of the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.
The Congress had voted in favour of independence from Great Britain on July 2 but did not actually complete the process of revising the Declaration of Independence, originally drafted by Thomas Jefferson in consultation with fellow committee members John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and William Livingston, until two days later. The celebration was initially modeled on that of the king's birthday, which had been marked annually by bell ringing, bonfires, solemn processions, and oratory. Such festivals had long played a significant role in the Anglo-American political tradition. Especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, when dynastic and religious controversies racked the British Empire (and much of the rest of Europe), the choice of which anniversaries of historic events were celebrated and which were lamented had clear political meanings. The ritual of toasting the king and other patriot-heroes—or of criticizing them—became an informal kind of political speech, further formalized in mid-18th century when the toasts given at taverns and banquets began to be reprinted in newspapers.
In the early stages of the revolutionary movement in the colonies during the 1760s and early 1770s, patriots used such celebrations to proclaim their resistance to Parliament's legislation while lauding the king as the real defender of English liberties. However, the marking of the first days of independence during the summer of 1776 actually took the form in many towns of a mock funeral for the king, whose “death” symbolized the end of monarchy and tyranny and the rebirth of liberty.
During the early years of the republic, Independence Day was commemorated with parades, oratory, and toasting, in ceremonies that celebrated the existence of the new nation. These rites played an equally important role in the evolving federal political system. With the rise of informal political parties, they provided venues for leaders and constituents to tie local and national contests to independence and the issues facing the national polity. By the mid-1790s, the two nascent political parties held separate, partisan Independence Day festivals in most larger towns. Perhaps for this reason, Independence Day became the model for a series of (often short-lived) celebrations that sometimes contained more explicit political resonance, such as Washington's birthday and the anniversary of Jefferson's inauguration while he served as president (1801–09).
With the rise of leisure, the Fourth also emerged as a major midsummer holiday. The prevalence of heavy drinking and the many injuries caused by setting off fireworks prompted reformers of the late 19th and the early 20th century to mount a Safe and Sane Fourth of July movement. During the later 20th century, although it remained a national holiday marked by parades, concerts of patriotic music, and fireworks displays, Independence Day declined in importance as a venue for politics. It remains a potent symbol of national power and of specifically American qualities—even the freedom to stay at home and barbecue.
David L. Waldstreicher Associate Professor of History, University of Notre Dame.
Taps
Retreat: Our Tradition INTRODUCTION
The military is full of traditions, many of which have rather obscure origins. As military professionals, especially Senior Noncommissioned Officers and Chief Petty Officers, its important that we pass on the knowledge of our traditions to those who will follow us. One of these traditions is Retreat, a ceremony used to signal the end of the normal duty day on military bases and posts. The retreat is closely associated with the music known as the tattoo, and these virtually synonymous terms are believed to have their origins in German, French, and British military campaigns. As with all traditions, the true beginnings are difficult to determine. Historical references, however, do offer some insight. Lets take a look at a few of the more prominent explanations.
TATTOO:
Tattoo, the signal for lights out, is our longest bugle call and comes from the French and British, who in turn adopted it from the Germans. One citation lists the source as a German word for tattoo, which was Zapfenstreich, meaning bung-line. When Zapfenstreich was sounded, it was the signal for the soldiers to put down their beer steins and call it a day. Just to be sure they did, the Provost and his men went around checking the kegs of the beer sellers immediately thereafter, to make sure all the bungs were in the barrels. They drew a chalk line over them and, if the line showed that it had been tampered with during the night, the beer-seller had a lot of explaining to do.
TAPS:
Taps, our most beautiful bugle call, is sounded shortly after Tattoo. It was adopted during the Civil War and was composed by a General who didn't like the call adopted from the French, because he thought it was too lively to indicate the end of the day. In our country, Taps signifies not only the end of a day, but the end of a life, since it is always played at military funerals. (1)
Another version dealing with the probable origins of Tattoo differs only slightly. This version places the origin in a very simple piece of army routine observed as far back as the seventeenth century. In those far-off days all active operations ceased in the late autumn and the rival forces went into billets in the towns and villages in and around the battlefield. That was the practice in the British Army serving under King William III in his campaign in the Low Countries during the 1690s. The social centers for the troops were in the inns, to which the majority resorted during the evenings. To get them back to their own billets again at night, it was necessary for the innkeepers to turn off their beertaps and to cease selling liquor. The time for doing this was between 2130 and 2200, and it was announced to all concerned by a drummer marching through the billeting area beating a call. Picture a bright moonlit winters night in Flanders about two-and-a-half centuries ago. At one end of the main road through the town or village are assembled a young, pink-faced officer, a sergeant, and a drummer, all belonging to the British regiment billeted in and around the place. About 2130 the officer orders the drummer to commence beating. The sounds of the drum-beat reverberate over the countryside and gradually they pierce their way into the inns. When the innkeepers hear them they remark, Doe den tap toe, and turn off their taps. Presently the soldiers pour out of the inns into the streets and go to their billets. After a short interval the officer, sergeant and drummer set off through the place, the drummer beating his call while the officer and sergeant look into the inns to ensure that no soldiers are lingering in them. When the officer is satisfied that all is well he dismisses the sergeant and drummer and goes to his own quarters.
In this case, it is believed that the derivation of Tattoo is from the Old Dutch expression Doe den tap toe, which, freely translated into English, is Turn off the taps. The word Taptoe was used in official books for a long time, but it has now given way to the familiar tattoo.
The following extract from The Perfection of Military Discipline after the Newest Method as Practiced in England and Ireland, or The Industrious Soldiers Golden Treasury of Knowledge in the Art of Making War published in 1701, throws some light on the subject:
The Tattoo or Taptoe: used in a Garrison or upon the Rounds both to warn the Soldiers and the inhabitants when they ought to repair to their Quarters of Guard, or when to shut the doors so if any spies be abroad they may be better distinguished, for when the Taptoe is returned to the body of the Guard a Warning Piece ought to be shot off, after which no person ought to be out of his quarters or from his post unless the Watch-word be given him.
There were no barracks in Great Britain at that period, and troops were accommodated in billets in a manner similar to that observed on the Continent, and the tattoo was beaten at night for the same purpose. In course of time a flute player joined the drummer and short tunes were played; then whole corps of drums, flutes or pipes, and eventually bands, played music for the entertainment of the garrisons. The germ of the modern Tattoo is to be found in the display given at the Royal Pavilion, Aldershot, in 1894, when His late Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught commanded what was then the Aldershot District. Queen Victoria visited Aldershot in the summer of that year and the display was arranged in honor of Her Majesty. The entertainment took the form of a drill display in the afternoon with a torchlight parade at night. At night groups of regimental bands, drums and pipes, each group playing its own particular tunes, converged in rotation from north, south, east and west on to a central point, where they were all massed as one orchestra and played a program of music for an hour. Following this the Last Post was sounded on the massed bugles and then the parade dispersed. The musicians were accompanied by torch-bearers during the performance.
This Tattoo was regarded as a success and it was repeated at the Royal Pavilion in the following years, the afternoon performance being called The Aldershot Military Display; and in the evening the bands, etc., repeated the torchlight assembly and massed bands program of music, the entertainment concluding with the sounding of the Last Post on the massed bugles. In 1900 the performance took place in the grounds of Government House, the official residence of the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Aldershot, and gradually various items were added to make what became known as The Aldershot Military Fete, such as displays by the Army School of Physical Training in the afternoon and at night by balloons and aircraft of the Royal Flying Corps participating. This continued until the outbreak of World War I. After the war a great advance was made in the pattern of the Tattoo, which now commenced a new life in the Rushmore Arena, by great numbers of troops of all arms taking part on a grand scale, searchlights being used in addition to torches of an improved kind. This Grand Military Searchlight Tattoo gave enjoyment to hundreds and thousands of people from all over the world who witnessed it every year.
In the Honorable artillery Company a gun is fired every night at 9 p.m. at their headquarters at Armoury House, Finsbury, London, E.C.1 The origin of this custom has not been established precisely, but it may be a survival of the nine o'clock Warning Peece or Taptoo Gun, formerly fired at military headquarters and in garrisons.
Thus has a simple piece of military musical routine developed into an established custom on the grand scale, providing entertainment and enjoyment for countless people. (2)
RETREAT
The lines between the Tattoo and Retreat origins are extremely blurred. These entities appear so similar, in fact, that they may be simply variations on the same theme. However, there are some differences so lets examine the Retreat a little more closely.
Retreat doesn't mean to retreat from an enemy, but to retire from the days activities. It is sounded at Evening Colors. The firing of a sunset gun at the same time stems from the ancient custom of making a lot of noise in camp as the sun went down, to scare off any evil spirits that might be lurking about. The sounding of a call termed Retreat on bugles every evening throughout the British Army probably has its origin as far back as the sixteenth century. A seventeenth-century reference to the call is to be found in an order dated 18th June, 1690, in a book of an officer in the Army of James II, which states, The general to be beate att 3 clock in ye morning...ye retrete to beate att 9 att night, & take it from ye gards.
Another seventeenth-century mention is contained in an order of William III of 1694, which reads: The Drum-Major and Drummers of the Regiment which gives a Captain the Main-Guard, are to beat the Retreat through the large street, or as may be ordered. They are to be answered by all the drummers of the other Guards, and by four Drummers of each Regiment in their respective quarters.
In 1727, Humphrey Bland published his Treatise of Military Discipline, where he writes: The Retreat, or Tattoo, is generally beat at Ten-a-clock at Night in the Summer and at Eight in the Winter. He then repeats the routine stated in the 1694 order of William III. From this it is more than probable the Retreat mentioned in the orders of 1690 and 1694 is the same as what is now known as Tattoo, particularly from the fact that it was carried out at night and not in the evening or at dusk.
The modern Retreat also originated in the sixteenth century, when it was called Watch Setting, and is referred to in the Rules of Ordynaunces for the Warre of 1544 and by Robert Barret in his Theorike and Practice of Moderne Warres of 1598, where he says the Drumme Major of the Regiment had to advertise (by beat of drum) those required for the Watch.
Bland, in the work referred to above, describes this ceremony thus:
Half an hour before the Gates are to be shut, which is generally at the Setting of the Sun ... the Drummers of the Port-Guards are to go upon the Ramparts and beat a Retreat to give notice to those without that the Gates are to be shut...As soon as the Drummers have finished the Retreat, which they should do in less than a quarter of an hour, the officers must order the Barriers and Gates to be shut.
Bland, therefore, refers to the ceremony performed after nightfall (at Ten-O-clock) as The Retreat or Tat-too, but that carried out at the Setting of the Sun as beating a Retreat. It appears, therefore, that several distinctions between the Tattoo and the Retreat began to emerge fairly early.
Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century Retreat and Tattoo appear to have been definite definitely separated and had become distinct ceremonies. In An Universal Military Dictionary of 1779 by Captain George Smith, Inspector of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he describes the Retreat thus:
Retreat is also a beat of the drum, at the firing of the evening-gun; at which the Drum-Major, with all the drums of the battalion, except such as are on duty, beats from the camp-colours on the right to those on the left, on the parade of encampment: the drums of all the guards beat also; the trumpets at the same time sounding at the head of their respective troops. This is to warn the soldiers to forebear firing, and the sentinels to challenge till the break of day, that the reveille is beat. The retreat is likewise called setting the watch.
Bland, in the work referred to above, describes this ceremony thus: Half an hour before the Gates are to be shut, which is generally at the Setting of the Sun ... the Drummers of the Port-Guards are to go upon the Ramparts and beat a Retreat to give notice to those without that the Gates are to be shut...As soon as the Drummers have finished the Retreat, which they should do in less than a quarter of an hour, the officers must order the Barriers and Gates to be shut.
Bland, therefore, refers to the ceremony performed after nightfall (at Ten-O-clock) as The Retreat or Tat-too, but that carried out at the Setting of the Sun as beating a Retreat. It appears, therefore, that several distinctions between the Tattoo and the Retreat began to emerge fairly early.
Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century Retreat and Tattoo appear to have been definite definitely separated and had become distinct ceremonies. In An Universal Military Dictionary of 1779 by Captain George Smith, Inspector of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he describes the Retreat thus: Retreat is also a beat of the drum, at the firing of the evening-gun; at which the Drum-Major, with all the drums of the battalion, except such as are on duty, beats from the camp-colours on the right to those on the left, on the parade of encampment: the drums of all the guards beat also; the trumpets at the same time sounding at the head of their respective troops. This is to warn the soldiers to forebear firing, and the sentinels to challenge till the break of day, that the reveille is beat. The retreat is likewise called setting the watch.
As regards the hour of Retreat, the 1794 Standing Orders and Regulations for the Army in Ireland state that it is to be beat at eight in Summer and in the Winter at nightfall. The 1799 General Regulations and Orders for the Conduct of H. M. Forces in Great Britain lay down that it shall be beat at Sunset, and this is repeated in all editions of Queens and Kings Regulations down to the present day. The latest Queens Regulations, 1955, para. 1143, state: At home stations the hours for ... retreat, at Sunset. At a station abroad, these hours may be varied by a General Officer commanding to suit his command. (3)
CONCLUSION
As you can see, our current Retreat ceremony has a colorful history--a history that includes contributions from many cultures. Whereas the tradition had very practical beginnings in early European warfare, today its usefulness is more symbolic. Yes, Retreat still signifies the end of the duty day, but it has a much deeper meaning. It links us with the past--our military heritage. Not only does it link us with the soldiers of long ago who had to be rousted from the taverns in the evening, but also with those who died on the battlefields of Lexington, Antietam, Flanders, Normandy, Iwo Jima, Soeul, and Khesanh.
FOOTNOTES
1. E. Land, The Complete Guide for the Serviceman's Wife, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1956.) 2. Major T. J. Edwards, Military Customs, (Aldershot, England: Gale and Polden Limited, 1961.) 3. ibid.
Welcome to Alaska - Alaska Highway
formerly Alcan Highway, road (1,523 miles [2,451 km] long) through the Yukon, connecting Dawson Creek, B.C., with Fairbanks, Alaska. It was previously called the Alaskan International Highway, the Alaska Military Highway, and the Alcan (Alaska-Canadian) Highway. It was constructed by U.S. Army engineers (March-November 1942) at a cost of $135 million as an emergency war measure to provide an overland military supply route to Alaska. The Canadian part (1,200 miles [1,930 km], mostly gravel) was turned over to Canada in 1946. A scenic route open all year round, it joins highways to Edmonton and Prince George (in the south) and highways to Valdez, Anchorage, Seward, and Haines (in the north).
Information retrieved from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: article #9005364
